Supporting Non-Proficient Adolescent Readers:
Identifying and Addressing Why They Struggle
Suzanne Carreker, Ph.D., CALT, QI, Principal Educational Content Lead
Proficiency in reading impacts all subjects across the secondary curriculum. Adolescents differ in
their reading proficiency (Snow, 2002) and, therefore, differ in their levels of academic success.
Some students demonstrate deep knowledge and vocabulary in class discussions but read slowly
and inaccurately. Other students are fluent readers who nevertheless do not understand what they
read. These students seem to be proficient readers yet fail to meet grade-level expectations. The
variability in reading proficiency among adolescent readers is clear—word recognition, fluency, oral
language, vocabulary, general knowledge, higher-order thinking skills, cognitive capabilities, and
motivation (Biancarosa & Snow, 2006; Snow, 2002)—but it is not always easy to pinpoint exactly
why an adolescent reader struggles. One thing is certain, though: students in grades 6 and above
who read proficiently can expect greater academic success and economic opportunities.
Across the country, states have implemented college- and career-readiness standards to ensure
that by high school graduation, all students have acquired the knowledge, skills, and work habits
they need to succeed in college, career, and life. The overarching goal of instruction is for students
to read increasingly complex grade-level-appropriate materials independently and proficiently.
Students’ progress toward meeting this critical goal is measured by end-of-year assessments of
reading.
Each year, secondary teachers await the assessment scores for validation of students’
achievement, administrators anticipate improved scores and higher graduation projections, and
parents hope their children’s academic performance is on track. Each year’s results indicate mixed
results—success for some, improvement for others—but still too many adolescent readers remain
non-proficient. The end-of-year assessment results tell which students are not reading proficiently,
but fail to answer the critical question of why . Without knowing and addressing the why , educators
cannot improve the proficiency of adolescent readers. The purpose of this paper is to explore the
causes of non-proficient reading as well as possible solutions for helping adolescent students in
grades 6 and above learn to read well and find reward in reading.
Supporting Non-Proficient Adolescent Readers: Identifying and Addressing the Why
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What Are the Necessary Components of Reading?
The Simple View of Reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Hoover & Gough, 1990) proposed that
reading comprehension is the product of two mutually dependent components: decoding and
linguistic comprehension . Each component is necessary but not sufficient alone. This means that
inefficiency in one or both components leads to overall reading failure.
Decoding
The ability to read increasingly complex grade-level-appropriate material assumes that
students have mastered the lower-level skills of reading, such as decoding and fluency.
Decoding is the ability to translate symbols on a printed page into their spoken equivalents.
The goal of decoding instruction is for the reader to be able to recognize words accurately
and instantly (Ehri, 1991). Instant word recognition, or automaticity, leads to fluency. Fluent
reading frees the reader’s cognitive resources to attend to meaning (Perfetti, 1985).
Adequate decoding provides the reader access to the meaning on a printed page, but
increased decoding ability alone will not increase reading comprehension without a
corresponding level of linguistic comprehension.
Linguistic Comprehension
Linguistic comprehension is the ability to derive meaning from sentences and texts through
listening. Meaning is dependent on the reader’s general vocabulary and prior knowledge.
For literary and informational text, meaning is also dependent on a specialized language
that is different from the language of everyday conversation. This complex and necessary
language is known as academic language. Literary and content-specific vocabulary and
morphology (e.g., prefixes, roots, suffixes) as well as grammar and syntax comprise
academic language (Nagy & Townsend, 2012; Schleppegrell, 2012; Snow & Uccelli, 2009).
Without adequate linguistic comprehension, the reader receives little reward for his or her
effortless decoding. The contrast between the two components of reading distinguishes the
possible causes of non-proficient reading and creates four distinct learner profiles.
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Supporting Non-Proficient Adolescent Readers: Identifying and Addressing the Why
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What Are Learner Profiles?
The table below presents the four different learner profiles that Simple View of Reading suggests.
Students may have 1) adequate linguistic comprehension and decoding, 2) adequate linguistic
comprehension but inadequate decoding, 3) inadequate linguistic comprehension but adequate
decoding, or 4) inadequate linguistic comprehension and decoding (Aaron, Joshi, & Williams, 1999;
Catts, Hogan, & Fey, 2003).
Profile 1
Adequate linguistic comprehension
Adequate decoding
Profile 2
Adequate linguistic comprehension
Inadequate decoding
Profile 3
Inadequate linguistic comprehension
Adequate decoding
Profile 4
Inadequate linguistic comprehension
Inadequate decoding
Four learner profiles based on the two components of reading comprehension (Aaron et al., 1999; Catts et al., 2003).
Profile 1
Students with adequate listening and reading comprehension are more than likely able to read
grade-level-appropriate and increasingly complex text independently and proficiently.
Profile 2
Students with adequate linguistic comprehension but inadequate decoding may be students with
diagnosed or undiagnosed dyslexia (Lyon, Shaywitz, & Shaywitz, 2003). Here, inadequate reading
comprehension is unexpected in relation to adequate linguistic comprehension, which may be at or
above grade-level expectations. The cause of poor reading comprehension for these students is
probably the lack of automatic decoding and fluent reading.
Profile 3
Conversely, students with inadequate linguistic comprehension but adequate decoding are able to
read fluently and spell accurately. However, they struggle to understand what they are reading, or
what they are listening to (Hogan, Adlof, & Alonzo, 2014). Poor listening and reading
comprehension suggest that these students may have a language-based learning disability.
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Supporting Non-Proficient Adolescent Readers: Identifying and Addressing the Why
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Profile 4
Students with inadequate linguistic comprehension and decoding may be garden-variety poor
readers (Stanovich, 1988) who may always struggle with either or both components. These
students may have strengths in other cognitive abilities (e.g., spatial-oriented skills, problem-solving
ability; musical ability).
Profile Considerations for English Language Learners
English Language Learners (ELLs) may exhibit any one of the four profiles. It is important to
ascertain their linguistic comprehension and decoding skills in their first language as well as in
English. Assuming ELLs have had sufficient instruction and experience to learn English, their
learner profiles in English most likely will mirror their learner profiles in the first language (García &
Godina, 2004). Consequently, if they have a history of linguistic comprehension or decoding
difficulties in learning to read in their first language, they will experience the same difficulties in
learning to read in English. ELLs with limited exposure to English may struggle to read English
simply because of lack of English language proficiency.
Additional Profile Considerations
The majority of non-proficient readers will match Profiles 2, 3, or 4, but some students may struggle
with reading for reasons other than linguistic comprehension or decoding. For example, they may
have executive function issues (e.g., attention, monitoring, remembering details, organizing
information); have difficulties quickly understanding and responding to information (i.e., slow
processing speed); or lack motivation; all of which, alone or in combination, can result in inadequate
reading comprehension, regardless of proficiency in linguistic comprehension and decoding. A
reader with adequate linguistic comprehension and adequate decoding could therefore exhibit
inadequate reading comprehension for one or more of these reasons.
What Are Learner Personas?
Learner personas are representations of students with the traits and behaviors of the four different
learner profiles. Learner personas can help identify the causes of non-proficient reading and the
instructional needs of real students who share the same traits and behaviors. Because the learner
persona who represents Profile 1 is a proficient reader, that persona is not described.
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Darnell (Profile 2)
Darnell has inadequate decoding yet adequate linguistic comprehension. He is a conundrum to his
teachers. His hand is always the first one to go up to answer a question. He has a robust
vocabulary that he displays during class discussions. When engaged in a debate, his deep
knowledge and keen logic are evident. His arguments are sound and perceptive. For these
reasons, his teachers are perplexed by Darnell’s “unexpected underachievement“ (Ferrer,
Shaywitz, Holahan, Marchione, & Shaywitz, 2009). In spite of his strong oral language skills and
engagement during class discussions, Darnell’s written work demonstrates little initiative or effort.
Although he has worked diligently, his work is rarely complete and has many spelling errors. In a
self-effacing manner, he avoids reading aloud whenever possible by deferring to his peers. When
he does read aloud, he misreads words, and his reading is labored and disfluent. A less
self-assured student emerges.
Linda (Profile 3)
Unlike Darnell, Linda reads accurately and fluently and is eager to read aloud at any time. She
writes immaculately and is a competent speller. However, Linda does not comprehend most of what
she reads beyond a literal level of understanding. She is unable to integrate information in a text
with her background knowledge to infer an answer to a question about the text, and she does not
understand the nuances of language (i.e., shades of meaning) or nonliteral language (e.g., idioms.
metaphors, similes). She has difficulties following oral directions and processing and integrating
information during class discussions. Her written compositions are well organized but lack maturity
and depth. Her teachers see Linda as a motivated student, but they are concerned that she
eventually will give up in frustration. Linda exemplifies Profile 3, the learner with adequate decoding
but inadequate linguistic comprehension.
Tyler (Profile 4)
Tyler demonstrates inadequacies in both decoding and linguistic comprehension. Tyler’s
inadequacies are due to his high mobility, which has disrupted his learning, created gaps in his
knowledge, and impacted his motivation. His mother is a single parent who for years has taken
advantage of one-month free rent offers that have often required Tyler to cross school and district
zones several times during a school year. Inconsistency across various curriculums means that
Tyler is either bored and acts out because the same content is being presented, or he is lost and
stops paying attention because the content is more advanced. He will go to any length to avoid
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reading and writing, both of which for Tyler are labored and full of errors. He prefers listening to text
read aloud and oral discussions and presentations, but he lacks Darnell’s overall depth of
knowledge and vocabulary. Tyler does display pockets of insightful knowledge and has gained
“street smarts” as a result of protecting his three younger siblings and assisting his mother with
household chores and responsibilities.
Izabella (Profile 4)
Izabella, whose first language is Spanish, sometimes has difficulties following oral directions and
the flow of a class discussion and does not always understand nonliteral language. Her decoding of
English words with reliable and frequently recurring patterns is improving, but she struggles with
less-frequent and irregular patterns. Her written work is progressing but continues to show spelling,
syntactic, and semantic errors that sometimes interfere with her communication. With her difficulties
in linguistic comprehension and decoding, she seems to exemplify Profile 4. Nonetheless, Izabella
reads fluently in Spanish and can comprehend texts at both literal and inferential levels in Spanish.
In her first language, Izabella exemplifies Profile 1. Currently, her English language proficiency
designation is Level 3, according to WIDA Performance Definitions. All her teachers are pleased
with her progress and realize that Izabella’s continued progress in understanding and decoding
English is paramount to her academic success. Because her greatest instructional need is to learn
to read and write English well, her persona at the present time mimics Profile 4. As she receives the
explicit instruction she needs in English, she will begin to exemplify Profile 1.
How Does Assessment Inform Instruction?
Many secondary students are just like Darnell, Linda, Tyler, and Izabella. Although state-mandated
assessments indicate these students have not met the standards, they do not provide information
about why. Fine-grained and valid assessments that measure the underpinnings of the components
of reading comprehension can identify the underlying issues. Both lower-level reading skills (e.g.,
word recognition, spelling, syntactic awareness) and higher-level reading skills (e.g., listening and
reading comprehension) should be measured. Students’ performance on these assessments will
identify their strengths and weaknesses, that is, identify the why . Addressing the underlying causes
of non-proficient reading through personalized evidence-based instruction will have a positive effect
on students’ understanding of course content and on their college and career readiness.
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Darnell’s instructional focus:
On word recognition and reading comprehension assessments, Darnell’s scores were below those
of his peers. However, his score on a listening comprehension assessment was well above those of
his peers, which suggests that he has the necessary vocabulary, syntactic awareness, general
knowledge, and critical thinking to comprehend when the demands of decoding are removed. Lack
of accurate and automatic decoding is why Darnell seems to be underachieving. His most pressing
instructional needs are explicit, systematic decoding and spelling instruction that will develop
accurate and fluent reading and improve his spelling. He will benefit also from morphology
instruction (i.e., study of Latin and Greek word parts), which will serve two purposes: aid his
accurate and automatic decoding of long words and further his growth in academic vocabulary.
Decodable text will help Darnell build fluency. Exposure to grade-level-appropriate complex text will
continue the advancement of his vocabulary, syntactic and general knowledge, and critical thinking.
He may need to listen to this complex text, but it will be of greater interest to him than decodable
text.
Persona Strengths Weaknesses Instructional Needs
Darnell
(Profile 2)
● vocabulary
● syntactic
knowledge
● listening
comprehension
● word recognition
● spelling
● fluency
● reading
comprehension
● decoding and spelling
● fluency practice with decodable text
● morphology
● listening to and analyzing increasingly
complex text
Linda’s instructional focus:
Linda’s word recognition assessment score was well above those of her peers. But on vocabulary,
syntax, and reading comprehension assessments, Linda’s scores were below her peers’ scores,
which is why she is a non-proficient reader. She needs explicit, systematic instruction in grammar
and vocabulary. Morphology instruction will be helpful in furthering her academic vocabulary.
Most importantly, Linda needs to learn skills (e.g. , identifying and understanding similes) and
strategies (e.g. , making an inference based on a simile) that are needed to read increasingly
complex text. Initially, she will require intensive scaffolding when reading complex text. Concrete
examples (i.e., specific, picturable), graphics, and repetition are essential scaffolding strategies
for Linda.
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Persona Strengths Weaknesses Instructional Needs
Linda
(Profile 3)
● Word
recognition
● spelling
● fluency
● integration of information
● vocabulary
● nonliteral language (e.g.,
idioms, metaphors, multiple
meanings)
● syntactic knowledge
● listening and reading
comprehension
● vocabulary and morphology
● nonliteral language
● grammar
● skills and strategies for understanding
increasingly complex text
● scaffolded reading of more complex text
● concrete examples, graphics, and
repetition
Tyler’s instructional focus:
Tyler’s assessment scores of lower- and higher-level reading skills are all below those of his peers.
The disruptions in his learning and the resulting gaps in his knowledge and lack of motivation
explain why Tyler is a non-proficient reader. His greatest instructional needs are intensive, explicit,
and systematic decoding and spelling instruction. Although, he does show a relative strength in
listening comprehension, he still needs explicit, systematic instruction in vocabulary, morphology,
and grammar. Decodable text is important for the development of his fluency. Listening to and
analyzing increasingly complex text will advance Tyler’s academic vocabulary, syntactic awareness,
and general knowledge. Text that matches his interests and pockets of knowledge will be
motivating. Most of all, Tyler needs consistent and sustained instruction.
Persona Strengths Weaknesses Instructional Needs
Tyler
(Profile 4)
● “street smarts”
● pockets of insightful
knowledge
● relative strength in
listening
comprehension
● oral discussion and
presentation
● motivation
● gaps in knowledge
● word recognition
● spelling
● fluency
● vocabulary
● syntactic knowledge
● reading comprehension
● decoding and spelling
● vocabulary and morphology
● grammar
● decodable text for fluency
● opportunities to listen to and analyze
complex text that matches interests
and pockets of knowledge
● consistent and sustained instruction
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Izabella’s instructional focus:
Not surprisingly, Izabella’s scores on assessments of lower- and high-level reading skills in English
were below those of her English-speaking peers, which is why she struggles with reading
proficiency in English. Her instructional needs are explicit, systematic instruction in English
decoding, spelling, and grammar. Additionally, Izabella needs opportunities to read decodable texts
to increase fluency and appropriately texts in English to increase her vocabulary, background
knowledge, and understanding of nonliteral language. Morphology instruction will be helpful in
increasing her academic vocabulary and will be of interest to Izabella because many Latin-based
affixes and roots in English are the same or similar in Spanish. As Izabella gains fluency and
language proficiency in English, she can begin to read increasingly complex text with scaffolding
that will decrease as she gains reading proficiency in English.
Persona Strengths Weaknesses Instructional Needs
Izabella
(Profile 4)
● lower- and
high-level reading
skills in Spanish
● Level 3 English
language
proficiency
In English:
● word recognition
● spelling
● fluency
● vocabulary
● nonliteral language
● syntactic knowledge
● listening and reading
comprehension
In English:
● decoding, spelling, and fluency
● vocabulary and morphology
● nonliteral language
● grammar
● opportunities to read texts independently
● more complex text as fluency and language
proficiency increases
● scaffolding with concrete examples and graphics
The Appendix provides a master synopsis of all four personas’ strengths and weaknesses and instructional needs.
Summary
Reading proficiency is the key to academic success and economic opportunities, and time is of the
essence where non-proficient adolescent readers are concerned. Fine-grained assessments can
identify students’ strengths and weaknesses in critical reading skills and create learner profiles.
Learner profiles, exemplified by personas, can guide the delivery of the personalized instruction that
will meet the learning needs of non-proficient readers. Knowing and addressing the wh y, the
underlying cause, will improve students’ ability to analyze and comprehend increasingly complex
text, leading to greater proficiency and academic success, as well as the economic opportunities that
follow.
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References
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and high school literacy: A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York (2nd ed.).
Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Catts, H.W., Hogan, T.P., Fey, M.E. (2003). Subgrouping poor readers on the basis of
reading-related abilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities , 36 (2): 151-64.
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& P.D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2, pp. 383–417). Reading, MA:
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304–320). New York: The Guilford Press.
Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and
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Hogan, T. P., Adlof, S. M., & Alonzo, C. (2014). On the importance of listening comprehension.
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Hoover, W. A., & Gough, P. B . (1990). The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing, 2 ,
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Lyon, G.R., Shaywitz, S.E., & Shaywitz, B.A. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 53,
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Perfetti, C.A. (1985). Reading ability. New York: Oxford University Press.
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APPENDIX
Persona Strengths Weaknesses Instructional Needs
Darnell
(Profile 2)
● vocabulary
● syntactic knowledge
● listening
comprehension
● word recognition
● spelling
● fluency
● reading comprehension
● decoding and spelling
● fluency practice with decodable text
● morphology
● listening to and analyzing increasingly
complex text
Linda
(Profile 3)
● word recognition
● spelling
● fluency
● integration of information
● vocabulary
● nonliteral language (e.g.,
idioms, metaphors,
multiple meanings,)
● syntactic knowledge
● listening and reading
comprehension
● vocabulary and morphology
● nonliteral language
● grammar
● skills and strategies for understanding
increasingly complex text
● scaffolded reading of more complex
text
● concrete examples, graphics, and
repetition
Tyler
(Profile 4)
● “street smarts”
● pockets of insightful
knowledge
● relative strength in
listening
comprehension
● oral discussion and
presentation
● motivation
● gaps in knowledge
● word recognition
● spelling
● fluency
● vocabulary
● syntactic knowledge
● reading comprehension
● decoding and spelling
● vocabulary and morphology
● grammar
● decodable text for fluency
● opportunities to listen to and analyze
complex text that matches interests
and pockets of knowledge
● consistent and sustained instruction
Izabella
(Profile 4)
● lower- and
high-level reading
skills in Spanish
● Level 3 English
language proficiency
In English:
● word recognition
● spelling
● fluency
● vocabulary
● nonliteral language
● syntactic knowledge
● listening and reading
comprehension
In English:
● decoding, spelling, and fluency
● vocabulary and morphology
● nonliteral language
● grammar
● opportunities to read texts
independently
● more complex text as fluency and
language proficiency increases
● scaffolding with concrete examples
gasjockeysconsulting 